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Join get revising, already a member, the liberation thesis for explaing female crime.

• Crime and deviance
• Created by: rebeccamellors
• Created on: 23-11-16 20:28
• If society becomes less patriarchal & more equal, women's crime rates will become similar to mens
• Changes in the structure of society have led to changes in women's offending behaviours
• Oppourtunitues in education & work have become more equal women have begun to adopt traditionally 'male' roles in both legitimate activity & illegitimate activity
• Both overall rate of female offending & female share of offences rose during second half of 20th century
• Studies support Alders view as they show the rising level of female participation in crimes previously regarded as 'male'
• More recently there has been media talk of the growth of 'girl gangs'
• The female crime rate began rising in 1950s which was before the women's liberation movement(1960s)
• Most female criminals are WC, the group least likely to be influenced by women's liberation - has benefited MC women much more
• There's little evidence that the illegitimate opportunity structure of professional rime has opened up to women
• It can be argued that she overestimates both the extent to which women have become liberated & the extent to which they are now able to engage in serious crime

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• Assess the sociological explanations for differences in the patterns of offending between males and females

April 23, 2012 2 Comments

Most crime appears to be committed by males. Frances Heidensohn (1996) argues gender differences are the most significant feature of recorded crime; for example official statistics show four out of five convicted offenders are male in England and Wales. Among offenders there are significant gender differences, for example official statistics show a higher proportion of men are convicted of sexual offences and males are more likely to be repeat offenders.

Some sociologists argue official statistics underestimate the amount of female crime. Typically female crimes such as shop lifting are less likely to be reported. For example property crime is less likely to be noticed or reported than the violent or sexual crimes committed by men. Similarly prostitution, committed by more women is more likely to go unreported. Even when women’s crimes are reported they’re less likely to be prosecuted or be let off lightly.

Another argument is called the “chivalry thesis”. The thesis argues that most criminal justice agents are men who are socialised to act in a chivalrous way towards women. Otto Pollak (1950) argues men have a protective attitude towards women. The criminal justice system is thus more lenient with women and thus their crimes are less likely to end up in official statistics. This in turn gives an invalid picture that exaggerates the extent of gender differences in crime. Evidence from self report studies show female offenders are treated more leniently. Women are also more likely to be cautioned than prosecuted and Roger Hood (1992) found women were a third less likely to be jailed than men for similar offences.

However there is evidence against the chivalry thesis. David Farrington (1983) found women were not sentenced more leniently for theft than males. Abigail Buckle (1984) observational study of shoplifting in a department store found men shoplifting twice as much as women despite offenders in official statistics being equal. If women appear to be treated more leniently it is because their offences are less serious. Steven Box (1981) found self report studies conclude women who commit serious offences are unlikely to be treated more leniently than men. The lower rate of prosecutions may be due to offending not serious enough to go to trial. Women offenders are also more likely to show remorse thus they’re more likely to be cautioned than go to court.

Many feminists argue that the criminal justice system is biased against them. Heidensohn argues courts treat women more harshly than men when they deviate from gender norms. For example double standards; courts punish girls more for promiscuous sexual activity. Women who do not conform to accepted standards of monogamous heterosexuality and motherhood are punished more harshly. Stewart (2006) found magistrates perceptions of female defendant’s characters were based on stereotypical gender roles. Pat Carlen (2007) puts forward a similar view in relation to custodial sentences. She argues when women are jailed it’s less for the seriousness of their crime but more of the courts assessment of them as wives, mothers and daughters. Girls whose parents believe them to be beyond control are more likely to receive custodial sentences than females who live more conventional lives. Carlen found Scottish judges were more likely to jail women whose children were in care than women who saw them as good mothers. Feminists argue these double standards exist because the criminal justice system is patriarchal. For example Carol Smart (1989) found judges making sexist, victim blaming remarks in rape cases. Similarly Sandra Walklate (1998) argues in rape cases it’s not the defendant on trial but the victim since she has to prove her respectability in order to have her evidence accepted. Adler (1987) argues women who are deemed to lack respectability, such as single parents, are less likely to have their testimonies believed by court.

The first explanations of female crime were biological rather than sociological. Lombroso and Ferrero (1893) argued criminality is innate, but there are very few born female criminals. Recent psychological explanations have also argued biological factors such as higher testosterone in males can account for violent offending gender differences. However sociologists take the view that social rather than biological factors are the cause of gender differences in offending.

Early sociological explanations of gender differences in crime focus on differences in socialisation of men and women. For example boys are encouraged to be tough meaning they’re more likely to partake in criminal violence. Functionalist Talcott Parsons (1955) traces differences in crime and deviance to the gender roles in the conventional nuclear family. Men take the instrumental breadwinner role outside the home; women perform the expressive role in the home. While it gives girls access to an adult role model it means boys reject feminine models of behaviour that express tenderness and emotion. Boys distance themselves from such role models by engaging in compensatory compulsory masculinity through aggression, which slips into acts of delinquency. Because men have less of a socialising role than women in the conventional nuclear family, socialisation can be more difficult for boys than girls. Albert K. Cohen (1955) argues this lack of an adult male role model means boys are likely to turn to street gangs as a source of masculine identity. In these sub cultural group’s status is earned by delinquency. Similarly new right theorists argue the absence of a male role model in matrifocal lone parent families leads to boys turning to criminal street gangs as a source of status and identity. Sandra Walklate (2003) criticises sex role theory for its biological assumptions. Walklate argues Parsons assumes that because women have biological capacity to bear children they’re best suited for the expressive role. Thus although the theory tries to explain gender differences in crime in terms of behaviour learned through socialisation it is ultimately based on biological assumptions about sex differences.

Recently feminists have put forward alternative explanations for women’s lower rates of crime and deviance. Feminists locate their explanations in the patriarchal nature of society and women’s subordinate position in it. The two main feminist approaches are control theory and liberation thesis.

Frances Heidensohn (1985) argues the striking feature of women’s behaviour is conformity; they commit fewer crimes than men. She argues this is because patriarchal society imposes greater control over women and it reduces their opportunities to offend. Control in the home revolves around women’s domestic role, with its constant round of housework and childcare that imposes restrictions on their time and movement and confines them to the house for long periods, reducing opportunities to offend. Women who try and reject their domestic role find their partners impose it by force, through domestic violence. Dobash and Dobash (1979) show many violent attacks result from men’s dissatisfaction with their wives domestic duties. Men exercise control through their financial power by denying women funds for leisure, increasing their time in the home. Daughters are also subject to patriarchal control. Girls are less likely to be allowed to stay out late. Thus they develop a bedroom culture; socialising at home with friends rather than in public spaces. Girls are required to do more housework than boys thus have less opportunity to engage in deviant behaviour on the streets.

Women are controlled in public by the threat of male violence against them, especially sexual violence. For example Islington Crime survey found 54% of women avoided going out after dark in fear of attack, as opposed to 14% of men. Heidensohn notes sensationalist media reporting of rape adds to women’s fear. Distorted media portrayals of the typical rapist as a stranger who carries out random attacks causes women to stay indoors. Women are also controlled in public from fear of not being defined as respectable. Dress, ways of speaking ect defined as inappropriate can give a woman a reputation. For example women avoid going to pubs for fear of being labelled sexually loose. Sur Lees (1993) notes in school boys maintain control by sexualised verbal abuse if girls fail to conform to gender role expectations.

Women’s behaviour at work is controlled by male supervisors and managers. Sexual violence is widespread and keeps women in their place. Furthermore women’s subordination reduces their opportunities to engage in criminal activity. For example the glass ceiling prevents many women from rising to senior positions where there’s greater opportunity to commit fraud. In general these patriarchal restrictions on women’s lives mean they have fewer opportunities to commit crime. However Heidensohn also recognises patriarchy can push women into crime. For example women are more likely to be poor and may turn to theft to gain a decent standard of living.

Pat Carlen (1988) used unstructured interviews to study 15-46 year old working class women who were convicted of crimes. Although Carlen recognises there are some middle class female offenders she argues most convicted serious female criminals are working class. Carlen uses a version of Travis Hirschi’s (1969) control theory to explain female crime. Hirshi argues humans act rationally and are controlled by being offered a deal; rewards in return for conforming to social norms. People will turn to crime if they don’t believe the rewards will be forthcoming and if the rewards of crime appear greater than the risk. Carlen argues working class women are generally led to conform through the promise of two types of rewards or deals. The class deal; women who work will be offered material rewards with a decent standard of living and leisure opportunities. The gender deal; patriarchal ideology promises women material and emotional rewards from family life by conforming to the norms of a conventional domestic gender role. If these rewards are not available or not worth the effort crime becomes more likely. Carlen argues this was the case of women in her study. In terms of the class deal the women failed to find a legitimate way of earning a decent living and it left them feeling powerless, oppressed and victims of injustice. Many of the women in the study were in poverty, humiliated in claiming benefits and had problems keeping in employment. As they gained no rewards from the class deal they felt they had nothing to lose by using crime to escape from poverty. In terms of the gender deal for conforming to patriarchal family norms most women either didn’t have the opportunity to make the deal or saw few rewards and many disadvantages in family life. Some were abused physically or sexually by fathers or partners, many spent time in care breaking family and friendship bonds and they found themselves poor or homeless. Many women reached the conclusion crime were the only route to a decent standard of living. They had nothing to lose and everything to gain. Carlen concludes that for these women poverty and being brought up in care or an oppressive family life were the two main causes of their criminality. Drug and alcohol addiction and desire for excitement were contributory factors, but they stemmed from being brought up in poverty. Being criminalised and jailed made the class deal less available and crime more attractive.

Heidensohn and Carlen’s approaches to female crime are based on a combination of feminism and control theory. Heidensohn shows the many patriarchal controls that help prevent women from deviating. Carlen shows how the failure of patriarchal society to deliver the promised deals to some women removes the controls that prevent them from offending. However both control theory and feminism can be accused of seeing women’s behaviour as determined by external forces such as patriarchal controls or gender deals. Critics argue this underplays the importance of free will and choice in offending. Furthermore Carlen’s sample was small and may be unrepresentative, consisting as it did largely of working class and serious offenders.

If patriarchal society exercises control over women to prevent them from deviating, then it would seem logical to assume that if society becomes less patriarchal and more equal, women’s crime rates will become similar to men’s. This is the liberation thesis argued by Freda Adler (1975). Adler argues that as women become liberated from patriarchy, their crimes will become as frequent and as serious as men. Women’s liberation has led to a new type of female criminal and a rise in the female crime rate. Adler argues that changes in the structure of society have led to changes in women’s offending behaviour. As patriarchal controls and discrimination have lessened, and opportunities in education become more equal women have adopted traditional male roles in legitimate activity e.g. work and illegitimate activity e.g. crime. As a result women no longer commit traditional female crime such as prostitution. They now commit male offences such as violence. This is because of women’s greater confidence and assertiveness and the fact they have more opportunities in the legitimate structure. For example there are more women in senior positions at work and gives them the opportunity to commit white collar offences such as fraud. There is evidence to support this view, for example overall female offending and female share of offending has increased. Adler argues the pattern of crime has shifted; she cites studies showing women participating in traditionally male crimes such as armed robbery. Martin Denscombe (2001) found increase in girl gangs with members gaining status by delinquency.

However critics reject Adler’s thesis on several grounds. The female crime rate began rising in the 50s, before the women’s liberation movement which emerged in the late 60s. Most female criminals were working class; the group least likely to be influences by women’s liberation, which has benefitted middle class women more. Chesney-Lind (1997) found in the USA poor and marginalised women are more likely to be than liberated women to be criminals. Chesney-Lind found evidence of women branching into male offences such as drugs, however this is because of their link with prostitution; an unliberated female offence. There is little evidence the illegitimate opportunity structure of professional crime has opened up to women. Laidler and Hunt (2001) found female gang members in USA were expected to conform to conventional gender roles, the same as non deviant girls. However Adler’s thesis does draw our attention to investigating the relationship between changes in women’s position and changes in patterns of female offending. However it can be argued she over estimates the extent to which women have become liberated and the extent to which they’re now able to engage in serious crime.

Feminists argue that although “malestream” non feminist theories of crime have only focused on males, these theories have assumed they were explaining all crime rather than solely male crime. Maureen Cain (1989) argues men have not been subject to the criminological gaze, but that most criminals are men. Thus until recently sociologists have not asked what t is about being male that leads men to offend.

However, influenced by recent feminist and post modernist ideas, sociologists have begun to take an interest in why men are more likely to commit crime. Their attention has focused on the concept of masculinity. James Messerschmidt (1993) argues masculinity is a social construct and men have to constantly work at constructing and presenting it to others. In doing so some men have more resources than others to draw upon. Messerschmidt argues that different masculinities coexist within society but that one of this hegemonic masculinity is the dominant, prestigious form that most men wish to accomplish. However some men have subordinated masculinities. These include gay men who have no desire to accomplish hegemonic masculinity, and well as lower class and some ethnic minority men, who lack the resources to do so. Messerschmidt sees crime and deviance as resources that different men may use for accomplishing masculinity. For example class and ethnic differences among youths lead to different forms or rule breaking to demonstrate masculinity. White middle class youths have to subordinate themselves to teachers in order to achieve middle class status, leading to accommodating masculinity in school. Outside school their masculinity takes an oppositional form, for example through vandalism. White working class youths have less chance of educational success so their masculinity is oppositional both in and out of school. It is constructed around sexist attitudes, being tough and opposing teacher’s authority. Black lower working class youths may have few expectations of a reasonable job and may use gang membership and violence to express their masculinity, or turn to serious property crime to achieve material success. Messerschmidt acknowledges that middle class men may also use crime. The difference lies in the type of crime, while middle class males commit white collar and corporate crime to accomplish hegemonic masculinity, poorer groups may use street robbery to achieve subordinated masculinity.

Sever criticisms have been made of Messerschmidt. He is in danger of a circular argument; masculinity explains male crimes e.g. violence because they are crimes committed by males, who have violent characteristics. He also doesn’t explain why not all men use crime to accomplish masculinity. He over works the concept of masculinity to explain virtually all male crime.

Recently globalisation has led to a shift from modern industrial society to a late modern or post modern de-industrialised society. This has led to the loss of many traditional manual labour jobs through which working class men could express masculinity by physical labour and providing for their families. Coincidently job opportunities in industry have declined with expansion in the service sector including the night time economy such as pubs and clubs. For some working class men this has provided legal employment and lucrative criminal opportunities as a means of expressing masculinity. Simon Winlow (2001) studied bouncers in Sunderland, and area of deindustrialisation and unemployment. Working as bouncers provided young men with paid work and the opportunity for illegal business ventures, for example in drugs, as well as the opportunity to express their masculinity through violence. Winlow draws on Cloward and Ohlin’s distinction between conflict and criminal subcultures. He notes in modern society there has always been violent, conflict subculture in Sunderland where hard men earned status through ability to use violence. However the absence of a professional criminal subculture meant little opportunity for a career in organised crime.

Under postmodern conditions, by contrast, an organised professional criminal subculture has emerged as a result of the new illicit business opportunities found in the night time economy. In this subculture the ability to use violence becomes not just a way of displaying masculinity but a commodity with which to earn a living. To maintain their reputation and employability the men must use their bodily capital. For example bouncers seek to increase physical assets by body building. Winlow notes this isn’t just a matter of using violence to win fights but maintain sign language of their bodies so as to discourage competitors from challenging them. Thus signs of masculinity become an important commodity in their own right. This reflects the idea that in post modern society, signs take on a reality of their own independent of the thing they supposedly represent. Winlow’s study is important because it shows how the expression of masculinity changes with the move from a modern industrial society to a postmodern de-industrialised one. At the same time this change opens up new criminal opportunities for men who are able to use violence to express masculinity by creating the conditions for the growth of an organised criminal subculture.

Filed under Sociology Tagged with bias , chivalry thesis , class , crime , deviance , female crime , feminism , functionalist , gender , gender patterns , human-rights , justice , liberation thesis , male crime , masculinity , messerschmidt , patriarchy , politics , prostitution , religion , research , society , women

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For example, men are more likely to commit crimes than women in general (although there’s been a change in the numbers since the late twentieth century). Men are also more likely to commit violent crimes, such as murder.

In this explanation, we will be looking at gender and crime in sociology . We'll cover:

• The relationship between gender and crime

Gender differences in crime statistics

• Theories of gender and crime in sociology
• Major research topics in gender and crime
• Evaluations of gender and crime theories

The relationship between gender and crime in sociology

• To understand the link between gender and crime , sociology offers different theories explaining gendered differences in offending.

Before we dive into them, let's examine some statistics on gender and crime patterns.

If we look at the figures from the Ministry of Justice's 2019 report on Women and the Criminal Justice System , it is clear that women still commit fewer crimes, and less dangerous crimes, than men. 3

Out of approximately equal numbers of men and women in the population, 85% of the people arrested were men.

About 75% of those charged with criminal activities and 95% of prisoners were also men, which means that 5% of the total prison population are women.

Statistics show that 85-90% of male criminals commit serious crimes, e.g. violence and robbery, and 98% of sexual offenders are men while only 2% are women.

Summary non-motoring and fraud offences were somewhat balanced in terms of gender.

Gender and crime theories in sociology

There are several Sociological Theories on the relationship between gender and crime. These include:

• The sex-role theory
• Biological theories
• Feminist perspectives
• The liberation thesis

The sex-role theory argues that gendered differences in crime rates result from differences in gender roles, identities, and processes of Socialisation .

Followers of this perspective believe that the traditional values and norms associated with femininity discourage criminal activity and behaviour in women. However, the values and behaviours associated with masculinity are conducive to crime amongst men.

Femininity and low crime rates

According to Talcott Parsons (1937) , women traditionally perform the ‘ expressive role ’ in their families, including raising children and taking care of their husbands' emotional needs. As a result, girls grow up internalising values such as being caring and empathetic, which reduces their likelihood of causing harm to others or committing crimes.

Parsons also argues that women get more attached to their families and wider communities in carrying out the expressive role. They are more likely to keep in touch with relatives, friends, etc. This effectively broadens and strengthens their community bonds . Thus, women are less likely to commit crimes due to their attachments to others in broader society.

Additionally, due to traditional gender roles and expectations, in recent decades, women have taken up a ‘ dual burden ’ or ‘ second shift ’ of working while also being responsible for housework and childcare. This keeps them busier than men, reducing opportunities to engage in criminal activity.

Masculinity and high crime rates

During the early stages of Socialisation , boys familiarise themselves with traditional masculine roles and identities that are partially responsible for the high crime rates among adult men.

American sociologist Edwin H. Sutherland (1960) suggests that the tendency to teach boys to be 'rough and tough' makes it more likely for them to engage in delinquent behaviour.

Sutherland claims that ever since masculine roles and values started to be ingrained in boys during adolescence , they engaged in more rebellious and unruly behaviour than girls. Similarly, young boys in gangs learn necessary traits of strong masculine identity, e.g. dominance and toughness, from other adult male members ( Cloward and Ohlin, 1960).

Gender and crime: feminist perspectives

There are two main strands of feminist theory concerning gender and crime: marginalisation and control theory .

Gender and crime: marginalisation

Some feminist sociologists assert that the marginal position of women in patriarchal societies is the primary reason men commit more crimes.

The marginalisation thesis suggests that men are not limited to domestic roles and duties and therefore have greater opportunities to commit occupational crimes or form criminal subcultures.

Gender and crime: control theory

Another explanation for gendered differences in offending is based on the idea that women are more controlled than men.

Conventional gender roles and behaviours imprinted during socialisation have given men more personal freedoms than women - men can stay outdoors for later hours, not be under strict supervision, etc.

In Frances Heidensohn’s (1985) view, women are controlled by their fathers and relatives as young girls and later by their husbands once they get married. The corresponding lack of supervision or control by authoritative figures in the case of men could therefore be responsible for their high levels of delinquent and/or criminal behaviour.

Pat Carlen argued that the class and gender deal combine and keep working-class women under control .

Class deal: working-class women would work hard in exchange for money which was then used to pay for consumer products and services.

Gender deal: women only engage in domestic labour - taking care of the needs of their husband, household, and family - and receive affection, love and financial support in return.

These deals kept working-class women respectable, and as suggested by Carlen , women committed crimes as a rational choice when these deals would break. As a feminist, Carlen believed that women were exploited in both areas - within families as well as by their employers in the capitalist structure.

Gender and crime: the liberation thesis

According to Freda Adler (1975) , increased freedom and growing economic opportunities for women have resulted in higher female crime rates. She argues that as women achieve similar social standings and employment patterns as men, they start to resemble men's criminal behaviours as well.

Adler based this theory on a cross-national correlation between the levels of women’s economic liberties and their crime rates.

Gender and crime: biological theories

Biological explanations focus on the biological differences between men and women to explain the differences in crime rates.

Men have higher testosterone levels than women, meaning that they are more likely to display aggression. This is why men tend to engage more in aggressive and/or criminal behaviour.

Gender and crime: the chivalry thesis

While crime statistics show that men commit higher crime levels than women, some sociologists claim that statistical data does not reflect reality. This is because most male law enforcement officers tend to protect women from the Criminal Justice System out of a gentlemanly attitude known as the chivalry thesis .

This theory may seem somewhat fanciful, but it can be explained by gender roles and expectations . Letting off a person who has perpetrated a crime simply because they are a woman indicates that men’s ‘chivalrous’ approach rests on the belief that women are incapable of criminal behaviour. As they are considered emotionally or physically weak, women's crimes are taken less seriously .

Therefore both society and the criminal justice system may underestimate women's criminality and let them go rather than punishing them.

Otto Pollack argued women get away with committing as many crimes as men as they lie better. He further adds that this is natural to women as they learn the act of deceiving for reasons such as hiding menstruation and faking orgasms.

When regarding Pollack's argument, it is important to remember that accusing women of being more deceptive than men with no proof can be viewed as sexist .

Gender and crime: research topics

James Dabbs and Robin Morris conducted research in 1990 on the relationship between testosterone levels and antisocial behaviour. He studied over 4400 men and found that men with high testosterone levels tended to have issues with substance abuse, delinquency, etc. 1

These men were also more likely to have multiple sexual partners, troubled relationships with authority figures such as teachers, and were more vulnerable to using hard drugs. This was exacerbated by factors such as inadequate education and low incomes.

Another study by Dabbs et al. (1995) on young male prison occupants found that men with high testosterone levels engaged more in violent crimes, violated prison rules, and so on. 2 Even in women prisoners, Dabbs et al. found that elevated testosterone was related to unprovoked violence, decisions against parole, etc.

Evaluation of gender and crime theories

Stephen Jones (2008) disagrees with the liberation thesis and counters that women in prison were mostly suspects who were forced into criminal activities because of a controlling man due to patriarchal control .

Critical of "malestream" theories on gender and crime, Carol Smart points out that feminists need to develop a transgressive approach toward criminology and focus on what is harmful to women regardless of whether it is illegal or not. Theories of Crime and Deviance are generally based on men's interests, conditions, circumstances, etc. Therefore, we cannot expect them to carry the answers to women's issues.

Liberal feminists would diverge from the other feminist theories on gender and crime and consider them outdated, arguing that women in contemporary societies have achieved much more equality.

The number of female workers has comparatively increased in the criminal justice system. However, judges are primarily male.

Female crime is often considered 'doubly deviant'.

The concept of double deviance refers to the fact that women are treated more harshly than men for committing crimes - first, for breaking social norms and expectations of how women should behave, and secondly, for breaking the legal rule/law.

Gender and Crime: A Human Rights Approach

In Gender and Crime: A Human Rights Approach (2016), Marisa Silvestri and Chris Crowther-Dowey look at gender and crime issues through a human rights framework. The authors cover the fundamental problems with gender discrimination in the criminal justice system and argue for the recognition of the human rights of every person in the CJS.

Gender and Crime - Key takeaways

• Men and women commit crimes that are different in number as well as in nature.
• If we look at the figures from the Ministry of Justice's 2019 report on Women and the Criminal Justice System , it is clear that women still commit fewer crimes, and less dangerous crimes, than men.
• The chivalry thesis
• There are a number of evaluations of gender and crime theories from different sociologists and feminists.
• Dabbs, J. M., & Morris, R. (1990). Testosterone, Social Class, and Antisocial Behavior in a Sample of 4,462 Men. Psychological Science, 1(3), 209–211. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.1990.tb00200.x
• Dabbs, J. M.; Carr, T.S.; Frady, R. L.; Riad, J. K. (1995). Testosterone, crime, and misbehavior among 692 male prison inmates. Personality and Individual Differences, 18(5). https://doi.org/10.1016/0191-8869(94)00177-T.
• Ministry of Justice. (2020). Women and the Criminal Justice System 2019. GOV.UK. https://www.gov.uk/government/statistics/women-and-the-criminal-justice-system-2019

Frequently Asked Questions about Gender and Crime

--> what is the relationship between gender and crime.

To understand the link between gender and crime, sociology offers different theories explaining gendered differences in offending.

--> What influence does gender have on crime rates?

Men and women commit different types of crimes at different rates. For example, men are more likely to commit crimes than women in general (although there’s been a change in the numbers since the late 20th century). Men are also more likely to commit violent crimes such as murder.

--> How are gender and sexuality linked to crime and deviance?

An individual's gender, as well as their sexuality, can affect their likelihood of committing crimes/what crimes they commit.

--> Does age, race and gender affect youth crimes?

Age, race, and gender can all affect rates of youth crime.

--> What does gendered crime mean? 

A gendered crime is a crime committed against a person solely because of their gender/the roles and characteristics associated with their gender. It can also refer to crimes that predominantly affect a specific gender.

Final Gender and Crime Quiz

Gender and crime quiz - teste dein wissen.

What is the sex-role theory?

Show answer

The sex-role theory argues that gendered differences in crime rates result from differences in gender roles, identities, and processes of socialisation .

Show question

According to Parsons, why are women less likely to commit crimes?

Talcott  Parsons (1937) argues that  women traditionally perform the ‘ expressive role ’ in their families, including raising children and taking care of their husbands' emotional needs. As a result, girls grow up internalising values such as being   caring   and   empathetic,  which reduces their likelihood of causing harm to others or committing crimes. 

Fill in the blanks: Parsons also argues that women get more attached to their families and wider communities in carrying out the expressive role. They are more likely to keep in touch with relatives, friends, etc. This effectively broadens and strengthens their ____ ____. Thus, women are less likely to commit crimes due to their ____ to others in broader society. 

Community bonds, attachments .

Which sociologist suggests that the tendency to teach boys to be 'rough and tough' makes it more likely for them to engage in delinquent behaviour?

Edwin H. Sutherland (1960).

Describe the 'dual burden' or 'second shift'.

In recent decades, women have taken up a ‘ dual burden ’ or ‘ second shift ’ of working while also being responsible for housework and childcare. This keeps them busier than men, reducing opportunities to engage in criminal activity. 

What is the marginalisation theory of gender and crime?

Some feminist sociologists assert that the   marginal position   of women in patriarchal societies is the primary reason men commit more crimes. 

The marginalisation thesis suggests that men are not limited to domestic roles and duties and therefore have   greater opportunities   to commit occupational crimes or form criminal subcultures.

Heidensohn’s control theory argues that female crime is less common because women are controlled more than men.

Finish the sentence: According to Freda Adler (1975) , increased freedom and growing economic opportunities for women have resulted in higher female crime rates. She argues that as women achieve similar social standings and employment patterns as men...

They start to resemble men's criminal behaviours as well.

What do biological theories focus on while explaining the relationship between gender and crime? Give an example.

Biological explanations focus on the   biological differences  between men and women to explain the differences in crime rates. 

For instance, men have higher testosterone levels than women, meaning that they are more likely to display aggression. This is why men tend to engage more in aggressive and/or criminal behaviour. 

What were the results of Dabbs et. al.'s research?

Men with high testosterone levels engaged more in violent crimes, violated prison rules, and so on.

What is the 'chivalry thesis'?

While crime statistics show that men commit higher crime levels than women, some sociologists claim that statistical data does not reflect reality. This is because   most male law enforcement officers tend to protect women from the criminal justice system out of a gentlemanly attitude known as the chivalry thesis .

Describe Jones' (2008) argument against the liberation thesis.

Stephen Jones (2008)  disagrees with the liberation thesis and counters   that women in prison were mostly suspects who were forced into criminal activities because of a controlling man due to patriarchal  control . 

What do we mean by 'doubly deviant'?

How does Carol Smart evaluate theories of gender and crime?

Critical of "malestream" theories on gender and crime, Carol Smart points out that feminists need to develop a transgressive approach toward criminology and focus on what is harmful to women regardless of whether it is illegal or not. Theories of crime and deviance are generally based on men's interests, conditions, circumstances, etc. Therefore, we cannot expect them to carry the answers to women's issues.

Men are more likely to commit crimes than women in general (although there’s been a change in the numbers since the late twentieth century). Men are also more likely to commit violent crimes, such as murder.

Mention some sociological theories on the relationship between gender and crime.

How does 'dual burden' affect women and crime?

Due to traditional gender roles and expectations, in recent decades, women have taken up a ‘ dual burden ’ or ‘ second shift ’ of working while also being responsible for housework and childcare. This keeps them busier than men, reducing opportunities to engage in criminal activity. 

Define 'class deal'.

Class deal refers to a situation when working-class women would work hard in exchange for money which was then used to pay for consumer products and services.  

Define the 'gender deal'.

Gender deal refers to when women only engage in domestic labour - taking care of the needs of their husband, household, and family - and receive affection, love and financial support in return. 

Liberal feminists broadly agree with the other feminist theories on gender and crime, arguing that women still face much discrimination in society.

Test your knowledge with multiple choice flashcards

Which sociologist suggests that the tendency to teach boys to be 'rough and tough' makes it more likely for them to engage in delinquent behaviour?

What were the results of Dabbs et. al.'s research?

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Sociology Index

WOMEN'S LIBERATION THEORY

Women's liberation theory is the thesis that women's involvement in crime will come to more closely resemble men's as Gender inequality , inequality of opportunity and inequality of condition between women and men are diminished by women's greater social participation and equality. Women's liberation theory covers the Women's Liberation Movement which was a political alignment of women and feminist intellectualism that emerged in the mid 20th Century.

Though there is some evidence that crimes committed by equally placed women are beginning to resemble men's, there is not much empirical evidence to support this perspective of Women's Liberation Theory. Jenny Brown is an organizer in the women's liberation movement and the author of several books on feminism, reproductive rights, and labor.

Socialist Feminism sees gender and class oppression as inseparable and rather than working for the equality of women within a liberal, democratic capitalist society. Women's Equity Action League are Liberal feminism groups created to further Women's Movements, Women's Liberation Theory and women's rights. Marxist Feminism is a form of feminism which believes that women's oppression is a symptom of oppression. Radical Feminism is recent and differs from traditional Marxism .

The word Feminism today remains entrenched in some people's minds as the cause of most of social problems . Chesney-Lind suggests that 'the invention of the liberated woman' has forced women to bear the brunt of the hostility towards the women's movement. Freda Adler believed that the arrival of the Second Wave of Feminism during the 1970s consequently coincided with a 'dramatic' upsurge in women's criminal activity.

Adler's theory has invited much criticism from other feminist writers such as Brown. She describes it as an 'embarrassment to feminism' and argues instead that feminism has made female crime more visible through increased reporting, policing and sentencing of female offenders. Adler's 'sisters in crime' appears to work within the frameworks of traditional crime and criminology rather than a feminist one.

Bwown's perspective also seems to exclude factors such as race , ethnic-group and ethnic identity , age and social class . Many feminist writers see these factors as very important. The smallest increases in arrests coincided with periods of the greatest increase in economic activity with the most common offence being that of shop lifting. These findings would seem to support a theory of a relationship between employment and crime rather than that offered by the women's liberation theory. When times are good, the offending woman appears to stabilise rather than escalate. An absence rather than availability of employment opportunities in women's liberation theory would seem a more plausible explanation for increases in female crime.

Gainesville Women's Liberation co-founder Carol Giardina said in 1989, "If you know that we are a sex that fights for our freedom, then you already understand the Pro-Woman Line. Now do we fight for it just in a movement, or were you fighting for it before you even heard of a movement? Do you fight for it on the street, in your bedroom, in your classroom? This isn't really just women, it's all oppressed people who can't stop themselves from fighting back. We call it the Pro-Woman Line because we discovered it about women and developed it in the Women's Liberation Movement." - Carol Giardina, "Women's Studies or Women's Liberation Studies," 1989 Women's History Month speech at the University of Florida.

“Towards a Female Liberation Movement” put it this way: “There is something horribly repugnant in the picture of women performing the same menial chores all day, having almost interchangeable conversations with their children, engaging in standard television arguments with their husbands, and then in the late hours of the night, each agonizing over what is considered to be her personal lot, her personal relationship, her personal problem . . . And unmarried women cannot in all honesty say their lives are in much greater measure distinct from each other’s. We are a class, we are oppressed as a class, and we each respond within the limits allowed us as members of that oppressed class. Purposely divided from each other, each of us is ruled by one or more men for the benefit of all men. There is no personal escape, no personal salvation, no personal solution.” - Toward a Female Liberation Movement by Beverly Jones and Judith Brown, June 1968. redstockings.org Redstockings Redstockings was a name taken in 1969 by one of the founding women's liberation groups of the 1960's to represent the union of two traditions: the "bluestocking" label disparagingly pinned on feminists of earlier centuries and "red" for revolution. Redstockings women would go on to champion and spread knowledge of vital women's liberation theory, slogans and actions that have become household words such as consciousness-raising, the personal is political, the pro-woman line, sisterhood is powerful, the politics of housework, the Miss America Protest, and "speakouts" that would break the taboos of silence around subjects like abortion. Redstockings today is a new kind of grassroots, activist "think tank", established by movement veterans, for defending and advancing the women's liberation agenda. The Redstockings Women's Liberation Theory Archives Distribution Project is a mostly volunteer, grassroots effort, which teaches history for activist use.

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women’s liberation thesis  

A perspective that suggests that increases in women’s arrests are due to the expansion of criminal opportunities that they were offered. Developed by Freda Adler, the theory emerged in relation to the women’s movement in the United States in the 1960s, which resulted in expanded opportunities for women to participate in the workforce. As they gained opportunities for conventional employment, the theory argues, so too would they have more opportunities within unconventional employment (i.e. crime). This thesis has been used to support the notion that gang membership has allowed females to achiever a greater sense of liberation, empowerment, autonomy, and freedom.... ...

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AQA Sociology A2 and AS revision

Gender and crime.

According to official statistics males commit way more crime than females.

By their 40 th birthday 1/3 males have convictions and only 1/10 for woman .

Men are responsible for about 4/5 recorded offences .

Females are more likely to be convicted for property crimes .

Males are more likely to be repeat offenders , have longer criminals careers and commit more serious crimes.

Frances Heidensohn (1996) suggests gender differences are the most significant feature of recorded crime

On top of this men are cautioned more than woman.

50x more likely for sex offences

14x more likely for burglaries

8x more likely for robbery and drug offences

7x more likely for criminal damage

5x more likely for violence against a person

Do woman commit more crime?

Sociologists argue that we underestimate the rates of female offending for two reasons;

Typical females crimes like shoplifting are less likely to be reported . Similarly prostitution which females more more likely to be engaged in is not going to be reported by either party.

Even if females crimes are detected they are less likely to be prosecuted, if they are then they will be treated lightly.

Functionalist Sex role theory and gender socialisation:

This theory looks at the gender socialisation and the different roles each gender has. Female roles include caring for partners, children, and dependant elderly parents. There is also household duties they are expected to perform. Gender socialisation wants women to adopt these roles, by adopting them they become more emotional and less aggressive making them more afraid of committing crime because they do not have the characteristics of a criminal . Men are encouraged to be tough and aggressive , therefore disposed to commit acts of violence . Parsons (1955) traces this back to differences in gender roles in nuclear family. Men take on the breadwinner role, whilst women take on the nurturing, caring role meaning they bring up children. Girls therefore have access to adult role model, but boys seek to distance themselves of feminine models of behaviour engaging in compulsory masculinity According to A. K Cohen (1955) the absence of the male role model leads boys to turn to all male street gangs as a source of masculine identity, here they earn status through delinquency (Think the other Cohen’s subcultural theory).

Evaluation of sex role theory:

Walklate (2003) criticises Parsons for assuming that because of a woman biological ability to bear children that they are the best to the expressive role. So although Parsons tries to explain this socially he is actually doing so biologically about sex differences.

Patriarchal Control theory and rational choice (gender deals):

Carlen (1988) and Heidensohn (1996) build on rational choice theories and explain female offending with it. Heidensohn argues that the difference in gender in offending is down to socialisation, social circumstance and and impacts of formal/informal control agencies.

Heidensohn argues that woman commit less crime because patriarchal society imposes greater control over woman. It operates in the home, in public and at work.

Control at home : A woman’s role in the home is to be a domestic goddess, clean and maintain the home, cook meals and look after the kids. This places high time demands on woman and gives them less time to commit crime. Women who try and make time may find themselves in a domestic abuse situation because their partners don’t like their breakaway from the rules.

Dobash and Dobash (1979) show how many violent attacks results from a man’s dissatisfaction with their wives performance domestically. Men also use control with their financial power to restrict funds for a woman’s leisure activities so that they spend more time working at home.

Daughters are restricted because they are under greater control to not come and go as they please or stay out late, as such they socialise in doors, a ‘bedroom culture’ is created and they are more likely to do housework chores than male counterparts.

Control in public : Woman are controlled in public because they fear going out and getting raped. Media reports help stipulate this fear to frighten women into staying indoors.

The crime survey found that 54% of women avoid going out after dark , against only 14% of men. There is also a fear of how women dress in public, dressing certain ways can get a reputation for being 'loose’ or sexually promiscuous especially if they go out in pubs alone where many crimes occur.

Control at work : Women have a subordinate role at work. The glass ceiling prevents reaching higher and potential white-collar crimes.

The gender deal and the class deal

Carlen looked at a small number of working class woman who had criminal convictions. She said that woman are expected to conform to two things, the class deal and the gender deal.

The class deal: the material rewards that happen when people work in paid employment, enabling woman to purchase things.

The gender deal: the rewards that woman get from f ulfilling their gender role in the family and home.

In terms of the class deal; woman in Carlen’s study failed to find legitimate ways to earn a decent living. Most had always been in poverty and couldn’t handle benefits. In terms of gender deal; some had been abused by farthers/families and so family bonds had broken.

Woman may then make the rational choice to commit crime (they have little to loose because they are poor) and crime offers some benefits like money and material goods.

The constrains of socialisation:

Heidensohn suggests that woman face greater loss than men if they commit crime because they would face a social stigma . Carlen argues woman are socialised into the domestic goddess role and risk disapproval when they don’t. Crime is double jeopardy for the crime and not being a 'woman’.

Social control:

Agencies of social control try to discourage people from crime. Heidensohn argues that there is a ideology over the spheres the genders are allowed in. For instance men dominate clubs and outside in public area’s, whereas woman dominate the home and private spheres.

The agencies of social control:

In the private sphere of the domestic home woman are too busy and have too many responsibilities to be committing crime, and teenage girls are more supervised than teenage male counterparts.

In the public sphere woman feel that they cannot go outside from fear of sexual/physical violence and at work they are often sexually harassed and supervised by a male boss.

Woman face the threat of their reputation as respectable people if they deviate from the norms. The applications of the word 'slapper’ or 'slag’ threaten their reputation.

Evaluation of patriarchal control theory:

-Underplays free will and choice in offending by saying that woman are controlled and determined by the patriarchal control.

-Carlen’s sample was small and may be unrepresentative, and largely WC offenders.

The liberation thesis:

If the patriarchal control is what is keeping woman from committing crime, then if it is removed its logically to say that female crime rates would be similar to males. Adler’s (1975) thesis says that woman’s liberation is leading to a new type of female criminals and rise in criminal rates.

Adler argues that the playing field is evening out, patriarchal controls and discrimination has lessened. Between 50’s and 60’s female crime rose from 1/7 to 1/6

Woman have begun to adopt more male roles both legitimately and illegitimately.

Evaluation of the liberation thesis:

+Good to point out a possible link between patriarchal liberation and offending rates

-Female crime rate has been rising since 1950’s before female liberation (which happened in the 60’s)

-WC females are more likely to be criminal ( Chesney-lind-1997 ), and WC females are less likely to be effected by liberation which has mainly affected MC woman.

- Chesney-lind did find evidence of woman doing more male offences like drugs, but they were already prostitutes which is very un-liberated.

-Little evidence that the illegitimate opportunity structure has opened up for women. Laider and Hunt (2001) found that women in gangs were still expected to conform to female roles

-She might have over-exaggerated the amount of liberation and the amount of female crime

The chivalry thesis:

This argues that most criminal justice agents – such as police officers, magistrates and judges are men, and men are socialized to be chivalrous towards women. Otto Pollak (1950) argues that men have a protective attitude towards woman so they are unwilling to charge, arrest or prosecute them. This means that their crimes are less likely to end up in the official statistics giving a bad picture on the actual amount of female crime.

Evidence for the chivalry thesis:

Self reported studies where the individual was asked about what crimes they have committed have often shown that woman are treated more more leniently than men.

Graham and Bowling (1995) research on a sample of 1,721 (14-25yr olds) found that although males committed more crime it was a lot less significant than OS say or example they found that males are 2.33x more likely than females to admit to committing a crime in the previous year not 4x.

Flood-Page (2000) found that while only 1/11 self reported female offenders were cautioned or prosecuted the figure for males was well over 1/7

The Home Office have said that woman are constantly treated more leniently by the law, with first offenders about half as likely to be given a sentence of immediate imprisonment.

Is this because they don’t commit serious enough crimes, not that they are given lee way.

Hood’s (1992) found that in a study of over 3,000 defendants, women were about 1/3 less likely to be jailed in similar cases.

The Ministry of Justice (2009) say 49% of females recorded offending received a caution, whereas only 30% of males did.

Evidence against the chivalry thesis:

Farrington and Morris (1983) Found in a study of 408 offences of theft in a magistrates court that women and men were sentenced equally

Buckle and Farrington (1984) Undertook an observational study of shoplifting. They found men were 2x more likely to shop lift. But official stats how the gender shoplifting prosecutions to be equal.

Carlen (1997) argues that sentences handed out to woman by the CJS are influenced by assessment of their characters and performance in relation to their traditional roles, rather than the severity of their offence. This way women are seen as really really bad because they violate norms , even though males commit more violent and severe attacks they are let of lighter as they are just overstepping their role not breaking it.

Females offenders are more likely than males to be held in custody before a trial even if they are no sentenced afterwards.

Women are 2x more likely to be denied bail when charged with drug offences and 3x more likely with being dishonesty.

Bias against women:

Feminists argue that the CJS is biased against women, they argue that the CJS treats woman more harshly especially when they deviate from gender norms of monogamous heterosexuality and motherhood.

Heidensohn (1996) notes the double standards of courts punishing girls but not boys for 'promiscuity’.

Carlen (1997) found that Scottish courts were much more likely to jail woman who had children in care than woman they saw as 'good mothers’.

Walklate (1998) argued that in rape trials the female victim on trial has to prove her respectability in order to have the sentence accepted.

Carol Smart (1989) quotes judge wild as saying; “Woman who say no do not always mean no. It is not just a question of how she says it, how she shows and makes it clear. If she doesn’t want it all she has to do is keep her legs shut” !! How disgusting!

Adler (1987) found that woman who are deemed to lack respectability; single parents, punks, peace protesters ect, find it hard to have their testimony believed.

Why do men commit crime?

The assertion of masculinity:

Messerschmidt: Accomplishing masculinity:

Messerschmidt (1993) argues th at 'masculinity is an 'accomplishment’, something that men constantly have to prove to others and build on. Some men have more resources than other to be able to do this.

Hegemonic masculinity (from what Connel 1987-95 describes) is the dominant form of masculinity and one a majority of men want to accomplish and are trying to do. It is fuelled by heterosexuality, paid work, aggression, toughness, competitiveness, and ability to subordinate woman.

Subordinated masculinities : some men who can’t get to hegemonic masculinity turn to crime because they lack resources. For example lower classes or ethnic minorities. Messerschmidt also says that MC men do also commit white-collar crime.

Messerschmidt says that men sometimes turn to crime as a means of asserting their masculinity when legitimate means are blocked. Legitimate means are; success in school, secure job and steady breadwinner status. The nature of hegemonic masculinity might explain why men from all social classes commit acts of violence and rape.

Evaluation of Messerschimdt:

-Not all crimes can be considered in aid of masculinity so why do some men commit them?

-Circular argument: masculinity is an description of male offenders not an explanation of crime. For example, masculinity explains male crimes (violence) because the crimes are committed by male males (who have violent characteristics).

-Why don’t all men use crime to achieve masculinity

Winlow : Post-modernity, masculinity and crime:

Globalisation has led to a shift to post-modern society. Manuel jobs which were used to express masculinity are now declining or have already declined. But there has also been an incline in service and leisure opportunities like clubs. Which combine employment and lucrative criminal activities. Simon Winlow’s (2001) study of bouncers in de-indiustrialised Sunderland he found that working as bouncers provided jobs and opportunity for illegal dealings in drugs as well a violence. Using Cloward and Ohlin’s conflict and criminal subculture distinction he says that there has always been a violent conflict subculture in Sunderland. But the absence in criminal structures left little opportunity for organised crime.

• 9 years ago

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sociologysaviour

Everything you need to pass a2 sociology, women and crime – unit 4.

Gender patterns in Crime – Official Statistics

• 4 out of 5 convicted offenders in England and Wales are male.
• A higher proportion of male than female offenders are convicted of violent or sexual offences.
• Males are more likely to be repeat offenders and have longer criminal careers.

Do women commit more crime?

• Do the official statistics on offending give us a true picture of the extent of gender difference in crime? Some sociologists argue that they underestimate the amount of female offending.
• Typically female crimes such as shoplifting are less likely to be reported. For example, property crime is less likely to be noticed or reported than the violent or sexual crimes more often committed by men. Similarly, prostitution – which females are much more likely than males to engage in – is unlikely to be reported by either party.
• Even when women’s crimes are detected or reported, they are less likely to be prosecuted or, if prosecuted, more likely to be let off relatively lightly.

The Chivalry Thesis

• This thesis argues that most criminal justice agents – such as police officers, magistrates and judges – are men, and men are socialised to act in a ‘chivalrous’ way towards women.
• Otto Pollack – “Men hate to accuse women and thus send them to their punishment, police officers dislike to arrest them, district attorneys to prosecute them, judges and juries to find them guilty, and so on.”
• The criminal justice system is thus more lenient with women and so their crimes are less likely to end up in the official statistics. This gives an invalid picture that exaggerates the extent of gender differences in the rates of offending.

Evidence for the Chivalry Thesis

• John Graham and Ben Bowling (1995) found that although males were more likely to offend, the difference was smaller than in the official statistics
• Floodpage et al (2000) found that while only one in eleven female self-reported offenders had been cautioned or prosecuted, the figure for males was over one in seven self-reported offenders.
• Ministry of Justice (2009) – 49% of females recorded as offending received a caution in 2007, whereas for males, the figure was only 30%
• Roger Hood (1992) – women were about one third less likely to be jailed in similar cases.

Evidence Against the Chivalry Thesis

• David Farrington and Alison Morris ’ (1983) study of sentencing of 408 offences of theft in a magistrates’ court found that women were not sentenced more leniently for comparable offence.
• Abigail Buckle and David Farrington ’s (1984) observational study of shoplifting in a department store witnessed twice as many males shoplifting as females – despite the fact that the number of male and female offenders in the official statistics are more or less equal. Suggests women shoplifters may be more likely to be prosecuted than their male counterparts.
• If women appear to be treated more leniently it may simply be because their offences are less serious . Steven Box (1981) found that women who commit serious offences are not treated more favourably than men . Similarly, the lower rate of prosecutions of females as compared with their self-reported offending may be because the crimes they admit to are less serious and less likely to go to trial. Women offenders are also more likely to show remorse, and this may help to explain why they are more likely to receive a caution instead of going to court.

Bias against women

• Double standards – courts punish girls but not boys for premature or promiscuous sexual activity.
• Women who do not conform to accepted standards of monogamous heterosexuality and motherhood are punished more harshly. Stewart (2006) found that magistrates’ perceptions of female characters were based on stereotypical gender roles.

Evidence for Bias Against Women

• Pat Carlen (1997) argues that when women are jailed, it is less for the seriousness of their crimes and more according to the court’s assessment of them as wives, mothers and daughters. E.g. Scottish judges were much more likely to jail women whose children were in care than women who they saw as good mothers.
• Feminists argue that these double standards exist because the criminal justice system is patriarchal . Nowhere is this more evident than in the way the system deals with rape cases. There have been numerous cases of judges making sexist, victim blaming remarks.
• For example, Carol Smart (1989) quotes Judge Wild ; “Women who say no do not always mean no. It is not just a question of how she says, how she shows it and makes it clear. If she doesn’t want it she only has to keep her legs shut.”
• Similarly, Sandra Walklate (1998) argues that, in rape cases, it is not the defendant who is on trial but the victim, since she has to prove her respectability in order to have her evidence accepted. According to Adler (1987) , women who are deemed to lack respectability such as single parents, punks and peace protestors, find it difficult to have their testimony believed by the court.

Sex Role Theory and Gender Socialisation

• Sex role theory is concerned with gender socialisation and the different roles of men and women in society.
• Women’s traditional roles involving caring for partners, children and dependent elderly relatives, combined with responsibilities for housework and family management, and often with paid employment.
• Women’s gender characteristics such as being more emotional, less competitive, less tough and aggressive and more averse to risk taking than men.
• These combine to make many women both more afraid of the risk-taking in crime, as well as giving them fewer opportunities than men to commit crime.

McRobbie (1978)

• McRobbie believed that teenage girls were less likely to commit crime because they were more likely to spend time in their bedrooms ( bedroom culture ), rather than going out. Therefore, they have no opportunity to commit crime.
• HOWEVER, this research could be seen as out of date because boys now also spend time in their bedrooms on games consoles.
• HOWEVER, the activities that girls and boys participate in in their bedrooms are different – girls read, do homework, watch TV whereas boys play violent video games on their games consoles, which can be seen to encourage crime.

Invisible Female Offenders

• Heidensohn (1989) – believed that previously sociological researchers had been male dominated , ignoring the role of women in crime. Therefore, women are not committing more crime now, their crimes are just being acknowledged within sociology.

Heidensohn : Patriarchal Control

• Patriarchal society imposes greater control over women and this reduced their opportunities to offend.
• Dobash and Dobash (1979) – many violent attacks result from men’s dissatisfaction with their wives’ performances of domestic duties. Man also exercise control through their financial power e.g. denying women sufficient funds for leisure activities, thereby restricting their time outside the home.
• Control in public – controlled in public places by the threat or fear of male violence against them. For example, the Islington crime survey found that 54% of women avoided going out after dark for fear of being victims of crime, as against only 14% of men.
• Heidensohn notes that sensationalist media reporting of rapes add to women’s fears.
• Females are also controlled in public by their fear of being defined as not respectable . Dress, makeup, demeanour and ways of speaking and acting that are defined as inappropriate can give a women a ‘reputation’ e.g. women may avoid pubs for fear of being regarded as sexually ‘loose’ or even as prostitutes.
• Sue Lees (1993) – boys maintain control through sexualised verbal abuse at school e.g. labelling girls as ‘slags’ if they fail to conform to gender role expectations .
• Control at work – women’s behaviour at work is controlled by male supervisors and managers. Sexual harassment helps keep women in their place. Women’s subordinate position reduces their opportunities to engage in major criminal activity at work. For example, the ‘ glass ceiling ’ prevents many women from rising to senior positions where there is greater opportunity to commit fraud.
• In general, these patriarchal restrictions on women’s lives mean they have fewer opportunities for crime. However, Heidensohn also recognises that patriarchy can also push women into crime . For example, women are more likely to be poor and may turn to theft or prostitution to gain a decent standard of living.

Liberation thesis – Adler 1975

• As women become more liberated from patriarchy their offending will become similar to men’s. Liberation is leading to a new type of female criminal and a rise in the female crime rate e.g. girl gangs (is this a good thing?)
• Patriarchal control and discrimination has lessened. As a result, women have begun to adopt traditional male roles in both legitimate (work) and illegitimate (crime) spheres.
• More women are in senior positions giving them more opportunity to commit serious white collar crimes.

Evaluation of liberation thesis

• The Female crime rate began to rise in the 1950s, long before women’s liberation.
• Most female criminals are working class – who have not experienced women’s liberation.
• Lind (1997) – women are branching into male crimes such as drugs, but only due to prostitution which is an unliberated lifestyle.

Pat Carlen 1988 – Class and gender deals

• Carlen studied thirty-nine 15-46 year old working class women who had been convicted of a range of crimes through unstructured interviews .
• Carlen uses a version of Hirshi’s (1969) control theory to explain female crime. Hirshi argues that humans act rationally and are controlled by being offered a ‘deal’; rewards in return for conforming to social norms . People will turn to crime if they do not believe the rewards will be forthcoming, and if the rewards if crime appear greater than the risks.
• Carlen argues that working class women are generally led to conform through the promise of 2 types of ‘deal’.
• The class deal ; women who work will be offered material rewards with a decent standard of living and leisure opportunities.
• The gender deal ; patriarchal ideology promises women material and emotional rewards from family life by conforming to the norms of a conventional domestic gender role .
• If these rewards are not available or worth the effort, crime becomes more likely – this was the case with the women in Carlen’s study.
• In terms of the class deal, the women had failed to find a legitimate way of earning a decent living and this left them feeling powerless, oppressed and the victims of injustice. As they gained no rewards from the class deal, they felt they had nothing to lose by using crime to escape from poverty.
• In terms of the gender deal for conforming to patriarchal family norms, most of the women, had either not had the opportunity to make the deal, or saw few rewards and many disadvantages in family life. Many of the women reached the conclusion that ‘crime was the only route to a decent standard of living. They had nothing to lose and everything to gain.’

Masculinity and crime

• Messerschmidt – “masculinity is accomplished, it is not something done to men or settled before hand…it is never static, never a finished product. Rather, men construct masculinities in specific social situations.”
• Rejects ‘ biological theory ’ (i.e. men are biologically/genetically more aggressive.
• Rejects ‘ sex role theory ’ (i.e. males and females are taught gender roles in early childhood and their behaviour is defined for life.
• Is masculinity an explanation of male crime, or just a description of male offenders (e.g. tough, controlling, etc)? Messerschmidt is in danger of a circular argument , that masculinity explains male crimes (e.g. violence) because they are crimes committed by males (who have violent characteristics).
• Messerschmidt does not explain why not all men use crime to accomplish masculinity.
• Messerschmidt – Hegemonic masculinity is “work in the paid labour market, the subordination of women, heterosexism (difference from and desire for women) and the driven and uncontrollable sexuality of men.”
• Young middle class white males – Subordinate themselves to teachers in order to achieve middle class status, leading to an accommodating masculinity in school. Outside school, their masculinity takes an oppositional form e.g. drinking, vandalism.
• Young white working class men – Less chance of educational success so masculinity is oppositional both in and out of school. Constructed around sexist attitudes, being tough and opposing teachers authority e.g. Willis’ Lads.
• Young lower working class ethnic minority males – They have fewer expectations of a reasonable job and may use gang membership and violence to express their masculinity, or turn to serious property crime to achieve material success.
• Crime in male groups who already have the resources to achieve hegemonic masculinity? White collar crime and corporate crime.

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